“After me the Deluge” Louis XV (1718-1774)
Several years ago, when I was visiting the Palace of Versailles, the guide repeated a famous quote regarding this grand edifice. “Louis the 14th built it; Louis the 15th enjoyed it, and Louis the 16th paid for it.” Today, in our socially mobile society, the concept of an ordered social world where people remained shackled to the social position of their birth is repellent. Alternatively, the words Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity still inspire us some 200 years after the fall of the ancient regime. The French Revolution signified the doom of absolute monarchy. Until 1788, in essence a feudal system where a privileged elite enjoyed political, social, and financial sinecures typified the fabric of European society. After the French Revolution, reactionary regimes although tenaciously resisting the concept that all men are created equal either accommodated democratic demands or were forcibly dismantled. Unfortunately, the fall of the Ancien Regime led initially to a reign of terror, where blood literally ran in the streets. Malevolent radicals ordered the execution of moderates in their attempts to totally alter French society. In 1799, a regime headed by Napoleon restored welcome moderation. In summary, the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution marked the beginning of the modern age, truly a watershed in Western History, creating permanent changes in the economic, social, and political landscape of Europe.
On the eve of the French revolution all sections of French society had reasons to be unhappy:
The nobles wanted power that was taken from them by the monarchy
The bourgeoisie resented the privileges of the nobles
The Bourgeoisie and the Peasants criticized the tax system.
Ultimately, a Reign of Terror, a dictatorship as bad as the monarchy, ruled France ruthlessly following the eclipse of the Ancien Regime.
The Ancien Regime of France, known as the old order, was an absolute monarchy that had control over the system of justice, the Church, taxes, and the military. The French population was divided into three estates
First Estate comprised the Clergy. The Upper Clergy were very wealthy and powerful and they related well to the nobility and monarchy. The Lower Clergy, which numbered about 100,000, related more to the lower estate.
Second Estate comprised the nobility, numbering about 400,000 with most of them being of minor rank. They were exempt from taxes and were the only class that could become officers in the Army.
Third Estate was made up of the bourgeoisie, wage earners, and the peasantry. They were the majority of the population, and enjoyed few privileges.
From 1650 until 1800 France was involved in an unending number of skirmishes and wars, creating enormous debts for the government. Ultimately, the government went bankrupt in the mid 1780’s during the reign of Louis the XVI. The later could not get the nobles to give up their tax concessions; instead, the King supported by the nobility imposed large tax increases upon the peasants and bourgeoisie, creating enormous pent up antagonism toward the Upper Classes—Upper Church, Nobility, and Royal Family. The obstinacy and selfishness of the Nobles ultimately led not only to fall of the monarchy but their own privileged position.
The role of the bourgeoisie in toppling the Ancien Regime reflects the threat of capitalism to the old order. That is, government deficits led to inflation. The nobility living off of fixed income suffered from their loss of purchasing power. The bourgeoisie largely profited from the rise of trade because their profits could match or surpass the inflation rate. Thus, over time the bourgeoisie became wealthier and more powerful on one hand, and extremely resentful of the current tax system that impaired their business expansion. Overtime the discontent of the bourgeoisie percolated down to the peasants. The peasants saw the idea of tax reform and equality as the way to the abolition of the seigniorial system, which was their main grievance.
Moreover, the bourgeoisie having high educational levels were influenced by the Age of Enlightenment whose authors Voltaire and Rousseau combined economics with new theories of class mobility and the rights of man. These thinkers captured the attention of the Bourgeoisie by promising free commerce and challenged the dogmas of absolutism. Instead, they championed that the brotherhood of men, equal rights and responsibilities should replace social privileges and the monarch’s claim to divine right. Voltaire was prophetic when he said, “Those who can make you believe absurdities, can get you to commit atrocities.”
Significant French aide to the American colonialists in obtaining freedom from England during our war of independence led to further disillusionment with the government. That is, the French bourgeoisie were taxed to support freedoms for the colonialists unavailable in France. Our independence introduced revolutionary ideas into France.
It is right to take up arms against tyranny
There should be no taxation without representation
All men should have liberal freedoms
A Republic is superior morally to a monarchy.
In essence, in America, the liberal ideas of the French philosophers provided the morale force for a democratic government whose success, an actual system, undermined the Ancien Regime.
By 1788 discontent with the monarchy forced Louis XVI to summon the Estates General, a congregation of representatives of the First, Second, and Third Estate. His lack of political skills precipitated the crises. That is, lacking interest in politics, he chose poor advisors, made hasty decisions, and failed to institute a minimum of reforms. The monarch hoped to dispel dissatisfaction with this liberal overture of convening the Estates General. Instead, the class factionalism became more embittered, particularly over the issue of representation. The Third Estate wanted votes by head count, given their numerical superiority. The First and Second Estate felt that each vote class should have an equal vote. On the 17th of June, the Third Estate decided to break the deadlock in the voting, by declaring themselves the representative body of France (the National Assembly. The decisive action by the Third Estate forced Louis XVI to recognize the supremacy and legitimacy of the parliamentary rights of the more numerous classes.
Unfortunately for the Ancien regime, each compromise encouraged more stridency in the reformers. The most significant symbol of the ascendancy of the masses was the storming of the Bastille on July 14th, 1789. A huge crowd of lightly armed revolutionaries stormed this symbol of oppression, forcing the Kings regiments to withdraw from Paris. The Law of the Lamppost replaced the authority of the king—that is, profiteers, aristocrats, government officials, and army officers were all hung from lampposts. In essence the popular masses using violence could impose their revolutionary aims, and force the privileged aristocrats to abandon their property in their flight for safety.
On June 20, 1791, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette failed to escape to the friendly borders of Austria. The unfortunate king had left behind incriminating documents showing his opposition to reform.
On the Night of the 4th of August the National Assembly met and the abolition of feudalism was brought about. Tears, accompanied this as many of the members of the National Assembly gave up their privileges and looked towards equality. All exemptions from taxation, all feudal dues and tithes and pensions were abolished. On the 26th of August 1789 the National Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Men. This essentially democratic document sought to produce equality within France and abolish the class system creating the sovereignty of the people.
Ultimately, in 1791the National Assembly passed a New Constitution that established 6 main points
- Hereditary Constitutional Monarchy
- A parliament consisting of a single elected Chamber
- The executive had no power to make laws
- All judges were to be elected
- Voting franchise for all persons paying taxes equivalent to 3 days wages
- Suspension of Kings veto powers.
European Monarchs hated and feared the revolutionary concepts of the New Constitution. The monarchs of Austria and Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz that vouched to restore the old order within France, and promised to launch a counter-revolution. Threatened by dissolution of democratic changes, extremists displaced moderates within the French government.
The ensuing struggle between the reactionary forces of Austria and Prussia and the revolutionary army of France led to the impression that Louis XVI had collaborated with the invading armies. Ultimately, the legislative assembly ordered the imprisonment and execution of the King and Queen. On the 21st of September, France became a Republic.
At his execution on January 21, 1793, Louis XVI showed great personal courage. He declared, “I die innocent of all crimes laid to my charge. I pardon those who have occasioned my death and I pray to God that the blood that you are now going to shed may never be visited on France and you…unfortunate people.” Even in his death, Louis was ineffective for the forces of violence remained paramount.
In 1792, a triumvirate headed by Robespierre, Marat, and Danton encouraged violent repression against any opponent of the regime. They encouraged the National Convention (the New Name for the National Assembly) to encourage the execution of Louis XVI. In order to achieve cohesive action against the internal and external perils to the Republic, a Committee of Public Safety was established that had all the power to do anything. Soon a Reign of Terror had replaced reasoning. The guillotine, the people’s axe, was used to kill mostly aristocrats. However, the indiscriminate use of capital punishment against “opponents’ of the regime began to undermine the forces of revolution. When Danton an early revolutionary leader called for an end of terror, Robespierre had him and his closest followers executed. In turn, Robespierre was executed when moderates regained control of the Convention.
The period of 1795 to 1799 was marked with attempted coups and rebellions. Ultimately, Napoleon Bonaparte organized a final coup in 1799.
